The Einsatzgruppen were Nazi mobile killing units that moved with German armies into newly conquered territories during World War II. These death squads played a central role in the Holocaust, systematically murdering over a million civilians between 1939 and 1945.
The four main units, Einsatzgruppen A, B, C, and D, carried out mass shootings that killed at least 1.5 million Jews and other targeted groups across Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union.
Each unit had about 1,000 men from the SS security police and intelligence services. They operated without legal restrictions in occupied territories.
Their main targets included Jews, Communist officials, Roma people, and other groups the Nazi regime labeled as enemies. The units worked with local collaborators and other German forces to carry out their deadly mission.
Looking at the structure and operations of these killing units, you can see how the Holocaust spread far beyond concentration camps. Their story ties into the broader Nazi strategy of conquest and genocide.
The commanders who led these operations and the impact of their crimes shaped post-war justice and historical memory across Europe.
Origins and Structure of the Einsatzgruppen
The Einsatzgruppen grew out of Nazi Germany’s security apparatus in 1938. They started as mobile units meant to secure conquered territories.
Reinhard Heydrich created these squads under SS command. He organized them into a hierarchy, with specialized subunits called Einsatzkommandos.
Establishment Within the SS and Nazi Regime
Reinhard Heydrich came up with the Einsatzgruppen idea in March 1938. He formed makeshift units called Einsatzkommando to secure government buildings after the Anschluss in Austria.
These early units worked under the Sicherheitspolizei (Security Police). By October 1938, two Einsatzgruppen units were stationed in the Sudetenland.
Heinrich Himmler, as head of the SS, gave these operations their overall authority. The units reported directly to the Reich Security Main Office (RSHA) after its formation in 1939.
Key founding principles included:
- Securing newly conquered territories
- Eliminating perceived enemies of Nazi rule
- Establishing German administrative control
The SS picked personnel based on their commitment to Nazi ideology. Members showed absolute loyalty to Adolf Hitler and the regime’s racial policies.
Organizational Hierarchy and Leadership
The Einsatzgruppen worked within a clear command structure inside the SS system. Four main groups (A, B, C, and D) were set up for Operation Barbarossa in 1941.
Each group had 600-1,000 men drawn from several Nazi organizations. The Gestapo, Kripo, and Sicherheitsdienst (SD) provided experienced personnel.
Command Structure:
- Group Leaders: SS officers with deep police experience
- Unit Commanders: Mid-level SS and police officials
- Field Personnel: Gestapo agents, criminal police, and SD members
The RSHA coordinated everything from Berlin. Reports moved up the chain of command to Heydrich and Himmler.
Waffen-SS units sometimes added extra manpower. Local collaborators and auxiliary police also helped out under German supervision.
Einsatzkommandos and Related Units
Each Einsatzgruppe split into smaller units called Einsatzkommandos and Sonderkommandos. These subunits usually had 100-150 men each.
Einsatzkommandos focused on specific areas or targets. They often worked closely with regular German army units and local administrators.
Unit Types:
- Einsatzkommandos: Main operational units
- Sonderkommandos: Special task forces for particular missions
- Teilkommandos: Smaller detachments for limited operations
Order Police battalions and Wehrmacht personnel supported these units. Romanian forces helped in certain territories.
The structure allowed them to move flexibly across vast territories. Units could join for big operations or split up for multiple actions at once.
Each kommando kept in touch with its parent Einsatzgruppe. This system made coordination possible while letting them respond quickly to local situations.
The Role of Mobile Killing Units in the Holocaust
The Einsatzgruppen changed from security units into tools of mass murder, targeting Jews, Romani people, and Soviet officials through systematic shooting operations. These units worked with SS forces, police battalions, and local collaborators to kill over 1.5 million people across occupied Eastern Europe.
Implementation of the Final Solution
The Einsatzgruppen began killing almost right after Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941. Four main units—A, B, C, and D—followed behind the German army into Soviet territory.
Each unit had about 1,000 men from the Security Police and SS intelligence service. Commanders ordered them to kill Communist Party officials, Soviet state workers, and all Jews, no matter their age or gender.
They developed a standard killing process called an Aktion. Victims either had to report to central locations or were rounded up at home.
Guards then marched them to killing sites outside towns and cities. At these places, victims often had to dig mass graves if none existed.
The Einsatzgruppen stripped people of clothes and valuables before shooting them at the edge of pits. Many victims saw family members die before their own execution.
The Babi Yar massacre near Kiev showed just how large these operations could get. Over two days in September 1941, Einsatzgruppe C killed 33,771 Jews in a single operation.
Targeted Victims and Populations
Primary targets included:
- Jewish communities of all ages
- Romani people
- Communist Party members
- Soviet government officials
- Intellectuals and clergy
Jews made up the largest group of victims. The Einsatzgruppen murdered whole Jewish families and communities across occupied Soviet territories.
They targeted people in ghettos, small towns, and rural areas. Romani people faced systematic killing alongside Jews, as the Nazis saw both groups as racial enemies.
Soviet officials also became targets. Germany viewed the invasion as a war against “Judeo-Bolshevism.” Communist Party members and government workers were shot right after capture.
The killings happened differently than in later death camps like Auschwitz and Sobibor. Mobile units brought murder straight to victim communities instead of sending people to fixed locations.
Local populations often saw these mass shootings. Many killers and victims had known each other as neighbors before the war.
Collaboration With Other Nazi Agencies
The Einsatzgruppen couldn’t carry out mass murder alone. With only about 3,000 total personnel, they relied on help from other German forces and local auxiliaries.
Key collaborating forces:
- Waffen SS units provided extra manpower for big operations
- Order Police battalions helped guard victims and secure killing sites
- Wehrmacht soldiers handled logistics and transportation
- Local auxiliaries identified victims and joined in shootings
Ukrainian, Lithuanian, and Latvian collaborators played a crucial role. They knew local Jewish communities and could spot people trying to hide.
Romanian forces helped with operations in areas under Romanian control. This collaboration pushed the reach of mobile killing units beyond German-ruled territory.
When territories switched from military to civilian control, SS and Police offices replaced the mobile units. These stationary forces kept up the shootings, using the same methods the Einsatzgruppen had started.
The collaboration created a network of murder that killed at least 1.5 million Holocaust victims across Eastern Europe through shootings and gas vans.
Operational Tactics and Atrocities
The Einsatzgruppen used systematic methods to carry out mass murder across Eastern Europe. These mobile killing units developed specific tactics for identifying, gathering, and executing civilians in occupied territories from the Baltic states to Ukraine.
Mass Shootings and Mass Graves
The Einsatzgruppen relied on mass shootings as their main killing method. They forced victims to dig their own graves before execution.
Victims either had to report to central locations or were rounded up from ghettos. Guards marched them to killing sites outside towns and cities.
The units stripped victims of clothes and valuables. They organized people into groups at the edge of prepared pits.
Execution Process:
- Victims lined up at grave edges
- Shot so bodies fell directly into pits
- Some forced into graves before shooting
- Family members watched others die first
Local collaborators helped identify victims and took part in the killings. Many of the killers and victims had known each other before the war.
The Einsatzgruppen shot over 500,000 people in the first nine months of the Soviet invasion. Mass graves appeared all along the Eastern Front, from the Baltic to the Black Sea.
Case Studies: Latvia, Estonia, Belarus, Ukraine
Each region saw the Einsatzgruppen operate in their own way. The killing units adjusted their methods to fit local conditions and the support they got.
Ukraine had the largest massacres. At Babyn Yar near Kyiv, Einsatzgruppe C killed 33,771 Jews in two days in September 1941. Ukrainian auxiliaries played a key role in this operation.
Belarus became a testing ground for mobile killing tactics. The Einsatzgruppen teamed up with local police to find and eliminate Jewish communities in smaller towns.
Latvia and Estonia lost nearly all their Jewish populations within months of German occupation. Baltic auxiliaries proved especially eager to collaborate.
The units coordinated with Wehrmacht forces, Waffen SS, and Order Police. Romanian forces helped in southern Ukraine and Moldova.
Local knowledge mattered a lot. Collaborators pointed out victims and guided units to Jewish neighborhoods and hiding places.
Methods of Execution
The Einsatzgruppen used several killing methods depending on resources and the number of victims. Mass shootings stayed the main technique throughout Eastern Europe.
Standard Shooting Operations:
- Small arms fire at close range
- Multiple shooters for each group of victims
- Bodies checked for signs of life
- Additional shots fired if needed
The units also tried gas vans as an alternative. These vehicles pumped carbon monoxide into sealed passenger compartments during transport to burial sites.
Gas vans turned out to be less efficient than shootings. They took more time, and personnel had to remove bodies and clean vans after every use.
Resource Requirements:
- Lots of ammunition
- Guard units for transport
- Digging equipment for graves
- Vehicles for moving victims
The psychological toll on shooters made commanders look for alternatives. Still, mass shootings continued as the main method because they worked quickly.
Units rotated shooting duties among personnel. Commanders sometimes gave out alcohol before operations to make killers less hesitant.
Major Campaigns and Geographic Expansion
The Einsatzgruppen expanded their operations across several theaters during World War II. They began with limited actions in Austria and Poland, but reached their largest scale during the invasion of the Soviet Union.
These mobile killing units killed about 2 million people across Eastern Europe between 1938 and 1945.
Activities in Austria and the Anschluss
The Einsatzgruppen first operated in Austria after the Anschluss in March 1938. These early units were smaller than later ones but set the basic model for future operations.
The Nazi squads worked to secure newly acquired territory after Germany annexed Austria. They focused on finding political opponents and Jewish community leaders.
These Austrian operations gave the Nazis a testing ground for their tactics. The units learned how to coordinate with the regular army and control civilian populations.
The experience from the Anschluss helped Nazi planners prepare for larger operations. They improved their methods for fast deployment and target identification.
Invasion of Poland and the Polish Campaign
Seven Einsatzgruppen units entered Poland in September 1939 during the German invasion. Each unit had 400 to 600 SS and SD personnel.
The squads followed right behind the Wehrmacht forces. Their main targets included Polish intellectuals, clergy, and nobility who might resist German occupation.
Key Polish Campaign Statistics:
- 7 Einsatzgruppen units deployed
- Thousands of Polish civilians killed
- Focus on eliminating Polish leadership class
The units carried out mass shootings in Polish towns and villages. They worked with local collaborators to find victims and secure execution sites.
These operations in Poland were much larger than the Austrian actions. The killing squads expanded their methods and increased the scale of murder.
Actions During Operation Barbarossa
Four major Einsatzgruppen units followed German forces into the Soviet Union in June 1941. Each unit had about 1,000 trained personnel from security police and intelligence services.
Einsatzgruppen Organization in Soviet Union:
- Einsatzgruppe A: Northern sector
- Einsatzgruppe B: Central sector
- Einsatzgruppe C: Southern sector
- Einsatzgruppe D: Far southern sector
The scale of killing shot up during Operation Barbarossa. The units murdered over 500,000 people in the first nine months of the Soviet campaign.
Jewish civilians became the main targets during the Eastern Front operations. The squads also targeted Communist Party officials, Soviet government workers, and Roma populations.
The Babi Yar massacre near Kiev showed the scale of these operations. Einsatzgruppe C killed 33,771 Jews over two days in September 1941.
Local collaborators helped the German units throughout occupied Soviet territory. Ukrainian, Lithuanian, and other auxiliaries identified victims and took part in mass shootings.
Commanders, Perpetrators, and Key Figures
The Einsatzgruppen operated under a strict command structure that started with top SS leadership and ran down through regional commanders to local units. Heinrich Himmler and Reinhard Heydrich designed and oversaw these operations from Berlin.
Field commanders like Otto Ohlendorf directed the actual killings across occupied territories.
Heinrich Himmler and Reinhard Heydrich
Heinrich Himmler led as Reichsführer-SS and ran all SS operations, including the Einsatzgruppen. He answered directly to Hitler and took full responsibility for the mobile killing units.
Reinhard Heydrich headed the Reich Security Main Office (RSHA) and gave direct orders to the Einsatzgruppen. On September 21, 1939, Heydrich sent out instructions that separated immediate actions from long-term goals for these units.
Heydrich set up the Einsatzgruppen into four main groups before the Soviets got invaded in 1941. He picked the commanders himself and handed out detailed mission orders.
These two men worked together to push the Einsatzgruppen’s role from basic security to mass murder. They shifted these units from limited police actions in Poland to organized killing across Eastern Europe.
Otto Ohlendorf and Einsatzgruppen Leaders
Otto Ohlendorf led Einsatzgruppe D in southern Ukraine and the Caucasus. He commanded about 600 men and coordinated with Romanian forces.
Other main commanders included:
- Arthur Nebe (Einsatzgruppe B)
- Karl Jäger (Einsatzkommando 3)
- Franz Stahlecker (Einsatzgruppe A)
These leaders sent execution numbers to Berlin in detailed reports called Ereignismeldungen. Ohlendorf’s group alone killed around 90,000 people while he was in charge.
After the war, authorities put 24 senior Einsatzgruppen leaders on trial in 1947-48. Fourteen got sentenced to death, and two received life sentences. Ohlendorf was executed for crimes against humanity and war crimes.
Involvement of the RSHA and Gestapo
The Reich Security Main Office (RSHA) created and managed all Einsatzgruppen operations. This group combined the Security Police and SS intelligence under one command.
The Gestapo contributed personnel and intelligence to the mobile killing units. Many Einsatzgruppen members came from Gestapo ranks and used their police skills in the occupied areas.
RSHA headquarters in Berlin got regular reports from field commanders about execution numbers and progress. These updates helped coordinate activities among different Einsatzgruppen.
The organization recruited about 3,000 people for all four Einsatzgruppen. They worked alongside local collaborators, Wehrmacht units, and Order Police to carry out mass shootings across Eastern Europe.
Judgment and Legacy After World War II
Einsatzgruppen commanders faced justice at Nuremberg in 1947-1948, with 24 leaders tried for mass murder. Historians like Raul Hilberg later documented these crimes in detail. Soviet researchers gathered evidence in The Black Book to keep the memory of victims alive.
Nuremberg Trials and Legal Accountability
The ninth Nuremberg trial focused on Einsatzgruppen leaders from September 1947 to April 1948. Twenty-four former SS commanders stood trial for killing over one million people behind the eastern front.
US prosecutor Ben Ferencz led the case against Otto Ohlendorf and others. The court found all 24 men guilty on at least one charge. Fourteen received death sentences.
The trial’s official name was United States of America vs. Otto Ohlendorf, et al. Many of the defendants were highly educated professionals who had joined the killing units by choice.
Key trial outcomes:
- 24 defendants convicted
- 14 death sentences issued
- First major prosecution of genocide
- Set precedent for future war crimes trials
The Einsatzgruppen case set legal principles that still matter now. It showed that “just following orders” didn’t excuse mass murder. The trial also revealed that educated professionals could willingly take part in genocide.
Historical Impact and Memory
The Einsatzgruppen trials shaped how courts handle mass atrocities today. American legal strategies from Nuremberg still influence international criminal law.
These trials tried to reckon with the tragedies of World War II. The same approach appears in modern international courts that follow American legal traditions.
The Einsatzgruppen case wasn’t just a war crimes trial—it was an atrocity trial. That distinction matters because the defendants carried out systematic extermination in occupied lands.
The trials left behind a deep record of Nazi crimes. Court documents preserve detailed evidence of how the mobile killing units operated all over Eastern Europe.
Long-term impacts:
- Legal precedents for genocide prosecution
- Documentation of Nazi atrocities
- Foundation for international criminal law
- Template for modern war crimes tribunals
Works of Raul Hilberg and The Black Book
Raul Hilberg really dove deep into Holocaust history. He focused on how the Nazis systematically persecuted and murdered millions.
He looked at the Einsatzgruppen and placed them within the bigger picture of Nazi policies. Hilberg explained how these units plugged right into the wider machinery of destruction that the Nazi regime built.
The Black Book came out of Soviet efforts to record Nazi crimes against Jewish people. Soviet researchers pulled together evidence of mass murders across the occupied territories.
Important documentation efforts:
- Hilberg’s thorough analysis of Nazi persecution
- Soviet gathering of atrocity evidence
- Preserving witness testimonies
- Studying how genocide works
Hilberg’s research methods shaped the way historians look at genocide and mass violence.
The Black Book gave people crucial evidence about the scope of Nazi crimes. It included detailed stories from survivors and witnesses throughout the Soviet Union.
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