The Polish Home Army, or Armia Krajowa (AK), became Europe’s largest underground resistance movement during World War II. In February 1942, the AK united earlier resistance groups and brought Polish fighters together under a single command.
At its peak in 1944, the Home Army coordinated over 400,000 members, making it one of the most significant resistance forces that challenged Nazi occupation across occupied Europe.
This underground army operated throughout German-occupied Poland from 1942 to 1945. Members carried out thousands of sabotage missions against German supply lines heading east.
Their activities ranged from small raids on German outposts to major uprisings in cities like Warsaw. These actions left a mark on both the German war effort and the spirit of Polish resistance.
The story of the Polish Home Army is full of both triumph and tragedy. They managed to disrupt German operations and keep the Polish resistance alive, but their relationship with the advancing Soviets brought lasting problems.
If you want to understand Poland’s wartime experience and the tangled aftermath under communism, you have to look at their operations, intelligence networks, and ultimate fate.
Origins and Formation of the Polish Home Army
The Polish Home Army started from resistance efforts that sprang up right after Poland’s defeat in 1939.
The organization went through three phases, growing from a small underground network into Europe’s largest resistance group by 1942.
Background of the Union of Armed Struggle (Związek Walki Zbrojnej)
Polish resistance roots go back to September 27, 1939. General Michał Karaszewicz-Tokarzewski set up the Service for Poland’s Victory as German and Soviet troops finished invading Poland.
That first organization lasted just seven weeks. On November 17, 1939, General Władysław Sikorski replaced it with the Union of Armed Struggle (Związek Walki Zbrojnej).
The Union of Armed Struggle operated for more than two years. During that time, it absorbed smaller resistance groups across occupied Poland.
The group focused on building networks and gathering intelligence. They recruited former Polish soldiers, set up communication lines, created supply routes for weapons, and trained new fighters.
Early on, the Union faced big challenges. They had few weapons, and German surveillance made everything risky. Many leaders got captured or killed.
Transformation into the Armia Krajowa
On February 14, 1942, the Union of Armed Struggle officially became the Armia Krajowa, or Home Army. This marked a turning point in Polish resistance strategy.
The new organization set clearer goals and streamlined its structure. Leaders aimed to unify all resistance under one command.
The Home Army quickly absorbed most other Polish partisan groups. The timing mattered—Germany had invaded the Soviet Union in 1941, shifting the war’s direction. Polish leaders saw a chance to prepare for a major uprising.
In 1942, the Home Army created a unified command, standardized training, improved communications, and coordinated more closely with the London government.
The AK pledged loyalty to the Polish government-in-exile in London, and this connection influenced its goals and operations for the rest of the war.
Key Figures in Leadership
Stefan Rowecki, codenamed “Grot,” took charge as the first Home Army commander. He had served as a colonel in the pre-war Polish army and brought real military experience to the job.
Between 1942 and 1943, Rowecki set up the Home Army’s basic structure. He established regional commands and training systems. German forces captured him in June 1943.
Tadeusz Komorowski, known as “Bór,” became commander after Rowecki. He led the Home Army during its biggest operations, including the 1944 Warsaw Uprising.
Other notable leaders included Leopold Okulicki, the final commander in 1945, and Antoni Chruściel, who ran the Warsaw district.
These leaders kept in touch with the London government using radio. They sent reports and received orders about conditions in occupied Poland.
Structure and Organization
The Home Army built its military structure on the old Polish army divisions. They divided Poland into regional commands that operated semi-independently.
Each region broke down into smaller units called districts and areas. Local commanders knew their territories and could adjust tactics as needed.
Security was a big deal. Members used codenames and worked in small cells, which made German infiltration harder.
At the top, the National Command set overall strategy. Regional commands handled area-specific operations, while districts and areas coordinated local units and direct action.
By 1944, the Home Army had about 400,000 members. It stood out as one of Europe’s largest resistance groups during WWII.
The AK stayed loyal to the Polish Underground State, a shadow government that coordinated both civilian and military resistance all across occupied Poland.
Mission and Objectives During World War II
The Polish Home Army fought with three main goals during the German occupation. They wanted to disrupt Nazi operations, keep Polish independence alive through underground governance, and prepare for a coordinated national uprising.
Resistance Against Nazi Germany
The Home Army launched constant attacks on German forces. Polish fighters destroyed over 7,000 German trains that carried supplies to the Eastern Front. They also sabotaged 5,000 German vehicles.
Their main activities included railway sabotage, gathering intelligence for the Allies, assassinating Nazi officials, and rescuing prisoners.
The AK provided 43% of all intelligence reports from occupied Europe to British agencies. Polish fighters told the Allies about mass murder at Auschwitz and gave them crucial info on Hitler’s V-1 and V-2 rocket programs.
Operation Heads targeted high-ranking Nazi officials in occupied Poland. The Home Army freed prisoners from German facilities and defended civilians during German reprisals. These actions forced Germany to use extra resources to fight the resistance.
Protection of the Polish Underground State
The Home Army served as the military arm of the Polish Underground State, a secret government that kept Polish sovereignty alive during the occupation. The AK answered directly to the government-in-exile in London.
They protected underground courts, schools, and administrative offices. Fighters defended civilians from attacks by Ukrainian and Lithuanian collaborators. Communication networks kept different regions connected.
The Underground State ran secret schools, hidden courts, covert postal services, and underground press operations.
By 1944, the Home Army had grown to about 400,000 members. The organization absorbed smaller groups to create a unified command.
Preparation for National Uprising
Polish commanders planned a national uprising to match Germany’s expected defeat. The Home Army stockpiled weapons and trained fighters throughout occupied Poland.
They mapped out plans to take over key German sites and infrastructure. Operation Tempest began in January 1944 as a series of regional uprisings. Polish fighters tried to free territories before the Soviets arrived.
The Warsaw Uprising was the Home Army’s biggest operation. From August to October 1944, 50,000 Polish fighters battled German forces in the capital. After 63 days, the uprising failed when promised Allied support never showed up.
On January 19, 1945, the Home Army disbanded after Soviet forces took over most of Poland. Many commanders got arrested or executed by communist authorities, who saw the AK as a threat to Soviet control.
Major Operations and Activities
The Home Army carried out three main types of military operations during the German occupation. They destroyed 7,000 German trains and 5,000 vehicles, targeted assassinations, and led major uprisings across Poland.
Warsaw Uprising
The Warsaw Uprising started on August 1, 1944, and became the Home Army’s most famous operation. Polish fighters wanted to free Warsaw before the Soviets arrived.
The uprising lasted 63 days. About 40,000 Home Army soldiers fought German forces in the city, using the Kotwica (anchor) symbol as their emblem.
German troops responded brutally. They destroyed most of Warsaw and killed thousands of civilians. The Soviets stopped at the Vistula River and didn’t help the Polish fighters.
The uprising ended in October 1944. Most Home Army commanders were captured or killed. The operation showed Polish determination, but it also exposed the limits of resistance without outside help.
Sabotage and Combat Diversion
The Home Army relied heavily on sabotage. These attacks disrupted German supply lines to the Eastern Front. Fighters blew up trains, bridges, and communication lines.
Operation Burza (Tempest) began in January 1944. The campaign aimed to liberate Polish territory as German forces retreated.
The resistance destroyed hundreds of railway shipments and gathered intelligence for the Allies. Polish agents reported on German troop movements and military plans.
Small units raided German facilities. These raids kept German troops tied down in Poland, preventing them from fighting elsewhere.
Assassination and Retaliatory Actions
The Home Army went after key German officials and collaborators. In Operation Kutschera, they killed SS-Brigadeführer Franz Kutschera in February 1944. He had ordered mass executions of Polish civilians.
They also ran Operation Heads, eliminating German officials who committed crimes against Polish citizens. These actions warned other would-be collaborators.
The Home Army freed prisoners from German jails and camps, rescuing both political prisoners and captured resistance fighters. These missions boosted morale among Poles.
German forces hit back with harsh reprisals, executing civilians after Home Army attacks. This led to a cycle of violence that lasted throughout the occupation.
Intelligence, Propaganda, and Civilian Support
The Polish Home Army did more than just fight. They built networks for intelligence and civilian aid. Members provided vital information to the Allies and supported communities under German rule.
Intelligence Gathering and Allied Cooperation
The Home Army ran the most reliable intelligence network in occupied Europe. Polish agents sent detailed reports about German troop movements, weapons, and plans to Allied commanders in London.
In 1939, Polish intelligence officers delivered a working Enigma machine replica to Britain. Three Polish mathematicians had cracked the German code system before the war even started. This breakthrough let the Allies read German military messages.
Key intelligence work included daily radio transmissions to London, reports on German rocket testing at Blizna, details about concentration camps, and info on military production sites.
Home Army members worked as forced laborers inside German factories. They sabotaged equipment and gathered information on German industry. Some even made weapons designed to fail in battle.
The Polish government in exile got regular updates through coded messages. Intelligence officers used hidden radios and courier networks to stay in touch with the Allies.
Propaganda Campaigns
Underground newspapers kept Polish morale alive during the occupation. The Home Army published over 1,000 different papers across occupied territories.
Radio stations broadcast messages of hope and instructions for resistance. Underground printing presses churned out leaflets to counter German propaganda. Civilians risked their lives to distribute these materials.
Common propaganda themes included Poland’s future independence, certain Allied victory, German defeats elsewhere, and instructions for sabotage.
Secret schools helped preserve Polish culture and language. Teachers held classes in private homes and basements. The resistance printed textbooks and educational materials to keep education going.
Churches often became centers for spreading information. Priests helped distribute underground newspapers and coordinate resistance activities.
Social and Civilian Assistance
Thousands of Polish families helped the Home Army without ever becoming official members. They gave food, shelter, and medical care to resistance fighters. Many also acted as messengers and lookouts.
Women played crucial roles in these support networks. They carried messages, transported weapons hidden in everyday items, and worked as nurses for the wounded.
The Home Army rescued Jews from ghettos and camps. Members created false identity papers and safe houses. Somewhere between one and three million Poles died while trying to help Jewish families escape German persecution.
Civilian support activities included hiding weapons, providing safe houses, creating false documents, and smuggling food to ghettos.
Doctors and nurses treated wounded resistance members in secret spots. They set up makeshift hospitals in basements and abandoned buildings. Medical supplies often came from raids on German depots.
The resistance built financial networks to support families of arrested or killed members. Community leaders collected money and distributed aid to those in need.
Relations with the Red Army and Postwar Repercussions
The Polish Home Army’s relationship with the Soviet Red Army turned out to be complicated and, honestly, tragic. They started by cooperating against the Germans, but things quickly fell apart and led to years of persecution after the war ended.
Interaction with the Red Army
The Red Army crossed into Polish territory near Sarny on January 3, 1944. Even though both sides fought a common enemy, the Soviets saw the Home Army more as rivals than allies.
Home Army units launched Operation Tempest throughout 1944. This plan aimed to spark uprisings across Poland and support the Soviet push against German forces.
The liberation of Vilnius ended up being both a moment of teamwork and a bitter lesson in betrayal. Home Army soldiers joined Red Army troops to drive out the Germans, and for a while, the partnership actually worked on the battlefield.
But repressions came fast after each victory. Colonel Aleksander Krzyżanowski, who commanded the Home Army in Vilnius, got arrested by the NKVD on July 17, 1944. He spent three years in a gulag before making it back to Poland.
Across other liberated territories, the same thing happened. Home Army units would help the Soviets capture cities from the Germans, only for the NKVD to arrest Polish resistance leaders days or weeks later.
Impact of the Soviet Advance
The Soviet advance into Poland tore apart Home Army structures. NKVD and SMERSH units followed close behind the frontline, with orders to wipe out Polish resistance.
Mass arrests started in the Lublin region during the summer of 1944. The NKVD set up a network of prisons, and thousands of Poles died there. Major facilities operated in Lublin, Rzeszów, Nowiny, and at the old Majdanek concentration camp.
Soviet formations arrested 215,000 people in Polish lands between 1944 and 1945. Official records list 39,000 as Polish, but the real number was probably much higher.
These repressions seriously weakened Home Army support for the Warsaw Uprising in August 1944. Many units that could’ve helped had already been destroyed or were hiding from Soviet forces.
The Białostocki region got hit especially hard. In November 1944, nearly 3,000 Poles were forcibly sent to gulags during so-called pacification operations.
Postwar Persecution of Home Army Members
Soviet persecution of Home Army members didn’t stop after World War II. The communist government in Poland, propped up by Soviet power, saw former resistance fighters as threats.
General August Emil Fieldorf, who led sabotage operations for the Home Army, was arrested by the NKVD on March 7, 1945. They sent him to the Ural mountains, and he returned to Poland in 1947, his health broken by imprisonment.
The Security Office (Urząd Bezpieczeństwa) formed using NKVD-trained staff. These places turned into torture chambers, and thousands of former Home Army members died or suffered permanent injuries there.
General Leopold Okulicki, the Home Army’s last commander, was arrested on March 27, 1945, in a sting operation set up by NKVD General Serov. Along with 15 other leaders of the Polish Underground State, he ended up in Moscow for a show trial.
Stalin gave Okulicki a 10-year prison sentence. He never finished it, dying in Butyrki prison on December 24, 1946, under circumstances that strongly suggest murder.
This persecution created a climate of fear that lasted for decades. Former Home Army members faced discrimination in jobs, education, and housing all through the communist era in Poland.
Legacy and Recognition
The Polish Home Army left a deep mark on Poland’s fight for freedom, and people still formally recognize their legacy today. Poland established its first National Remembrance Day of the Soldiers of the Home Army in 2025.
Contributions to Poland’s Freedom
The Home Army laid the groundwork for Poland’s eventual independence after World War II. Their resistance showed the world that Poland never gave up during occupation.
They kept Polish sovereignty alive through underground operations. The Home Army preserved culture and government structures when the official state disappeared.
Key contributions include:
- Building the largest resistance network in occupied Europe
- Training thousands of soldiers for post-war service
- Gathering intelligence that helped the Allies
- Protecting Polish civilians from Nazi crimes
The Home Army’s role in the Warsaw Uprising made a strong impression on foreign powers. Their sacrifice proved Poland deserved recognition as an independent nation after the war.
Many Home Army veterans became leaders in post-war Poland. They brought real military experience and organizational skills to the massive task of rebuilding.
Commemoration and Modern Reflections
Poland officially honors Home Army soldiers with the National Remembrance Day, which lawmakers established on January 9, 2025. People first celebrated it on February 14, 2025.
Every February 14th, folks in Warsaw gather at the Polish Underground monument. That day marks when the Home Army formed back in 1942.
You’ll spot the Kotwica symbol (anchor) on monuments all over Poland. Home Army units used this emblem during the war, and now it stands for their legacy.
Polish schools talk to students about Home Army history. Kids learn about how regular people organized and fought back against occupation.
Modern Poland sees the Home Army as heroes who fought for freedom. Their story still inspires military and civilian leaders today, especially when the country faces tough moments.
Veterans’ organizations keep Home Army records and personal stories safe. These groups want future generations to really understand how much the resistance movement shaped Polish independence.
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